I think you get the point but the movment of ions IS a force, meaning you can calculate it or (better example in biochemistry ) translates it in another force. this way, the transfert of H+ ions throught the mitochondria membrane is converted in heat, and mostly in the regeneration of ADP to ATP. another example should be the transfert of seve in tree from roots to leaf : the osmotic pressure is able to elevate a volume of water versus the gravity force of the weight of the water. keep in mind if zero force is involved, any system should be considered at equilibrium. equilibrium in life means death.

chemical force: think about it in a terms of "chemical species" force. as for partial pressure in a mix of gazes, you can see the global pressure (like surrounding air) and the specific distribution of different species in the same volume.

yes osmotic pressure is a very important force in the circulation of ions AND water through membrane. maybe life itself (survey of one cell like for unicellular) rely on this mechanism. disturb the membrane integrity (with detegents like soap, reagents like alcohol, and specific drugs binding ions transporters like botulin toxin) and you kill the cell. so the cell life requests a very fine tuning of inside ions concentrations to maintain proper osmotic pressure inside (and so the water concentration itself) and this mechanism requires itself some energy (to be used by active ion membrane carrier). not only for nerve cells, but any cell in the organism.

hope it helps !

edit : life is a complex system. our actual knowledge must be take with humility and scientific explanations TENDS to describe it with a lot of accuracy. dont mind on your teacher for such simplification. it is a way to teach, not a way to lie. I have learnt in very different ways what could be a "protein" all along school classes but only in university I ultimately learn what was behind. and all past lessons looks "fantasy" to me now. dont be afraid to learn new things with baby steps !

you're absolutely right and apologize for it. read too quickly!

hi. cancerous cell may exhibit different receptors in their membrane (exposed to extracellular media) than healthy cells. in some cancer, thoses receptors may allow the cell to "refuse" to kill themselves (and so clear the ill cell) by a natural mechanism.

consequently, antibodies (wherever they came, naturally produced by the body, or by RNA vaccines) that targets thoses receptors should be able to recognize a cancerous cell in a normal population and engage the immune system in the elimination of the cell.

thanks. but honestly, this is mostly an intellectual effort. what actual physics can tell us about the universe is REALLY stunning and seems to answer anything better than any other approach (personnal opinion). but this knoweldge was gained by the ability to fight what we believed and only keep what is strongly demonstrated. the only counter argument I have in mind is the Hawkin beam from black hole wich freely assume those object obey to entropy law. I will personnaly blindly follow the theoric demonstration and "praise" to see evidence while I am still alive.

as a naive assessment, enstein formula's describe a constant equilibrium between energy and mass, including C constant (velocity in vaccum of ANY mass-less particle, not only photons).

consequently, a variation in C whenever you want during the life of the universe would have provoked a variation in energy itself.

as a less naive argument, physical constants were discovered step by step but every fundamental values seem to be linked to each other, building up few but solid equations describing the universe, in past, present, and future time. Science itself walks forward by successive discoveries. today, relativity and quantic physic are our best models of the universe and rely on such constant (and make it far more easy with math!). but there is a chance a breakthrou happens and shows variations in what we consider (very strongly) today as constants.

thanks for your comment. I took a look on the study you quote but only AFTER answering here.

I have in mind (and no evidence or precise mechanism) sweetener may cheat the brain (hypothalamus ?) while eating, leading to a release of glucose in blood. that will lead to insulin spike but indirectly induced by sweetener itself.

Hi. I would like to see your source. Insulin is released in the blood in order to lower the blood glucose level (it triggers the absorption of glucose by cells) so you can expect higher insulin level into your blood shortly after eating pure glucose or later after eating complex carb (like starch).

BUT : insulin released is ONLY trigger by glucose level in blood. To summarize, you have roughly 1 gramme of glucose by liter of blood. go upper (after a meal) and insulin is released to store additionnal glucose by the cells. go lower (before first day lunch or during exercise) and glucagon (the "anti" insulin hormone) will take glucose stored in cell and frees it into blood.

NONE sweetener have the ability to match with the receptor releasing insulin as they have no structural similarities with glucose.

hi. life remains on storing information (DNA) and usage of this information (protein synthesis) in order to replicate itself in a newer generation.

consequently, a lot of "biocide" we use in medecine target DNA replication or protein synthesis. Another way is to disturb the wall cell (or viral capside) that will make the cell content spread out and make managing DNA or proteins impossible. Ability of a drug to kill a bacteria and not the human carrying it often rely on the ability of the molecule to pass through cell wall and reach its target (so the molecule will enter bacteria cytoplasm and stay out of human cells).

that is for the "chemical agent". strong acid or strong alkali, some chemical reagent (lets say phenol for instance) are able to at least disturb any cell wall and lead to death. they are non selective agent so could be your answer.

there is also of course "physical agent" like electromagnetic wave in UV. they have ability to travel through tissues and break the DNA. Eukaryotic cells have strong mechanism to fix broken DNA but the final result will be a balance between UV exposure and fixing speed.

others waves stronger than UV (X ray, cosmic ray, and for close reasons radioactivity) can act the same on DNA and so are very dangerous to any living beings. keep in mind without the ozone layer around earth, UVs emitted by the sun make life impossible to earth.

thanks for your explanation !

hmmm. magnetism needs a difference of electric charge into a molecule. see as H2O itself exhibits a positive charge near the proton and a negative charge near the oxygen.

when you dissolve your salt in aqueous solution, you break the ionic bond between the molecule and form new ionic bond with water. in my mind, you obtain diffuse electric charges in the solution wich are not aligned like in the unsolvated salt. the only possible magnetism effect could come from your 2 hydrated species and could be not related To the initial strenght of the salt.

consequently, non aqueous solution won't dissolve the salt, keeping it in the shape that have the magnetism effect.

I hope others will have knowledge to correct my assumption. and I wish you the best for your studies!

a magnet is a like a tower of dipoles (the molecule or part of the crystal with magnetic properties) stacked together.

so imagine an isolated dipole, it will be the smallest magnet in the world. stack it with others (in the good direction) and you obtain a stronger magnet with its "power" the sum of individual magnet.

you can simplify (only to understanding) the strenght of a magnet as the sum of individual dipole, therefore as the height of the stack.

consequently, 2 different configuration of your magnet (thin or very thin) but with the same final size will show the same strenght, and the same strenght of one super unique magnet as tall as the 2 stacks.

hope it will help !

yep : magnetic field oriented in the same direction adds their individual effects. it appears clearly if you think about permanent magnet as an arrow: axis of the arrow show you the direction of the field and imagine its lenght represents the strenght. Arrows in same direction sum their own effect, and arrows in opposite direction will nullify the magnetic field.

keep in mind permanent magnets have a max strenght (related To their composition and production process) and magnetic effect lowers very quickly with the distance.

notably : no. pH in physiological fluids in mammals is very stable and involves many biochemical process in order to. for example, blood pH roughly vary for less than 0.2 ph unit in normal conditions. Any larger variation in this value will lead to conformationnal changes in circulating proteins and also on exhibited proteins (like receptor on the cell surface) and finally strong metabolic issue.