Haha, damn. That’s what I was thinking at first and the Wikipedia page got me confused- maybe that wasn’t the best reference to give to OP…

Sure, you obviously have a political point to make with your example...

My point was that in a conversation about statistical method, it is really important to make it clear that you need to be really careful that the statistics you collect and examine actually support the conclusions you make as this is a really, really common mistake

This comes back to a system of accounting called "double entry bookkeeping". Basically, whenever you have a transaction, it should affect at least 2 separate accounts e.g. a loan gets you $10k in cash, but adds $10k to your liabilities (debt) so overall, the loan hasn't changed your financial position because you'll have to pay it back later. This allows for a cross check to make sure you haven't missed anything in your accounts.

If you do a job on account (get paid later) you get income so you add this to your "sales" account as a debit (increase in assets) but I also need to show where this money is going so I credit my wages and inventory accounts to show that I no-longer have the materials I used and I have to pay my people. I also need to credit my profit account for the left over money. Now my debit (the sales revenue) balances the credit (what happened to that money). The money owed to me counts for accounting purposes as an asset equivalent to having the cash though we also need to track cash since I can't transfer that debt to my suppliers to pay my bills

Later, I get paid for the job so now my "sales" account is credited (reduced) because I am no-longer owed money but my "cash" account is debited (increased) as I now have the money in my hand / bank account. Again, my books still balance - since this was just collecting money owed, my overall position hasn't changed.

Balancing the books means going over all of your accounts and confirming that they all agree with each other. (Also see debits and credits)

Technically, you can say "Americans think America is fascist" not that it actually is. This is another common error that people make with data - You can only draw conclusions about what you actually measured and for surveys in particular, the way you ask the questions can have a big impact on the results

Asking people what they think is only measuring what they think, not measuring against an objective standard. To answer if America is actually fascist, you'd need to define some measurable parameters for what that means then collect data on those parameters

Think of the minus as taking something away and addition as giving something back. If you take something away from the things that are going to be taken away then it is effectively being given back. This is what the double negative is representing

For example:

You have $10 and owe your friend $6 so now you have $4 left. Now, lets say that your friend decides that he'll forgive $2 from the debt. So, the debt is now $4 (6-2 =4).

You can now subtract $4 from $10 and have $6 left over but you can also do this as a single equation:

10 - (6 -2) = 6

The brackets are clarifying it but we don't really need them - you can write it as

10 - 6 - -2 = 6

To summarise: You have $10 (+10), you owe $6 (-6) minus the $2 (--2 = +2) you were forgiven so you have $6 left after you pay your friend back

You can also do this with physical objects as a practical demonstration.

Make a pile of blocks, take some away then take some out of the pile that is being taken away and give them back. The ones you take away are the single negative, the ones you give back again are the double negative

Depends on how big the bridge is and what type you need.

A suspension bridge can be built by pulling ropes across the water. You don't even need to pull the main ropes across first, you can pull a lighter rope across then use that to pull the larger rope or join multiple smaller ropes together to make the large bridge.

You can also launch a bridge, that is, build it on land then push it out over the water. This is still an option for building bridges, sometimes by building a segment, launching it out then building another segment and repeating the process. You can do this with piers in the middle or as a single span.

You can lift the bridge out into place - this may need larger lifting gear but it can also be done in parts and then assembled in place. You can also use a crane on a boat to float the bridge out then lift it up.

All of the above can be done to completely bridge over the deep water if you can make the bridge long enough between supports. If you can't, then you'll need to put supports in. A coffer dam is a fairly common way of doing this which I see has been explained already. You can also use a drilling rig to drill a pier into the ground without needing to dive down but both of these methods wouldn't be achievable in very deep water without reasonably modern technology (post industrial revolution at least). Before that, they were limited in where they could build bridge piers to areas where they could build dams deep enough or where they could drive piles into the riverbed from the surface

Also knowledge pre-loads. While not every profession needs a degree, most benefit from a fundamental understanding of their field or even their employers field.

Most urban water supplies use reservoirs of water high up so that gravity does the work of keeping the water moving. At that point, all you need is big enough pipes that the flow rate doesn't slow the water down enough to cause problems. Too much flow in too small a pipe increases the speed and thus the resistance to flow reducing the pressure at the other end (pressure is only constant at the same level when the water isn't moving). These supply pipes can be over a meter in diameter, sometimes even larger. The size steps up, the more properties are supplied be the pips - where I am its generally 15-25mm for a single house, 100mm along most streets, 300mm feeding multiple streets etc. A recent project in my city was a 3m diameter pipe from the reservoir in the hills outside the city

Depending on the terrain around the city, the main storage areas might be too low for this to work properly, in which case, you can use pumps or water towers resupplied with pumps. Particularly tall buildings may need to use pumps or their own tanks in the top of the building to ensure the pressure is maintained as they may be higher than the main reservoirs or close enough to reduce the pressure below the required level.

The latest booking system on the NZ MOH website gives you the option to have both at the same time.

Yes and no - water on a flat surface with an open edge doesn't drain at the same speed as water on a smooth slope. You can build up a shallow pool on each ledge that will spilling over the open side. With enough rain, the effect will be overcome and it will basically end up the same and with light enough rain, some of the water will get trapped on the roof and evaporate off but in the middle it should work.
I don't really feel like digging out my old fluid dynamics notes to try to calculate it out but the basic principle makes sense

It's not just larger gutters, its all the pipes to the tanks and even then, there's a limit to how fast water will flow through the pipes for a given level difference between the gutter and the tank. By slowing the water down earlier, the peak flow rate is reduced.

Also, from a quick read, the traditional design design is made of stone so increasing the gutter size may not be as easy. I suspect the shape is also partly a result of the construction technique and as with many local styles, once they become characteristic of the area, they tend to get carried on just out of tradition

I am not aware of any means to actually achieve this without a real gravity well or accelerating to obscenely high speeds.

You could try to achieve a similar effect by subtly accelerating the clocks for the players but you are unlikely to be able to get much of a difference without people noticing what's happening. I think you'd get away with running clocks 10% faster, maybe a little more but any more than that and it would start to get obvious and take people out of the experience.

Most of the shows I've seen do this use some sort of direct brain interface to basically write an experience to peoples brains rather than actually speed time up for them so the character doesn't age in real life. Right now, we don't have any means to write memory directly or to provide more than very basic direct brain inputs or control so that's also a no

Then it shouldn't matter if the axle moves smoothly or is locked in place as the smooth motion of the wheels comes from their bearings. In that situation, you could even fix the axle rigidly to the 4x2 and it will work fine.
For something like that, I'd be tempted to use threaded rod and have washers and nuts clamp the axle in place then use nuts to clamp the inner race of the bearing to the axle

That's one I haven't seen before... Makes sense for relatively fixed routes though, provided there is a large enough reliable electricity supply available

The pipe material is usually PVC? PVC doesn't exactly transmit heat very well, in fact, it's one of the materials used to improve the thermal properties of window joinery. Neither does terracotta if you've got pipes that old but they're not usually used above ground.

The only pipe materials you're going to have a problem with creating thermal bridges are metal and for a waste pipe, that probably means cast iron. If your house has cast iron waste pipes then there may be some thermal efficiency benefit to replacing them with PVC, otherwise the pipe material is basically an insulator.

The air in the pipe will generally match with the outside air whatever you do because pipes are vented (don't block the vents...) but air isn't much of a conductor of heat either - the biggest problem with air when insulating is letting the inside air escape and be replaced by outside air. This is easily managed by sealing around the pipe where it goes through the wall.

Which will do what? Manufacturing boards isn’t the problem. There’s no chips to put on them…

What exactly do you propose they invest in? There aren't enough chips to go around - this is affecting everything from Raspberry Pis to car manufacturing.
The cause is a combination of Covid, trade restrictions (for really high end stuff) and some weather affecting the current fabrication plants.

There's only 2 things that can change this - one is more production out of the current semiconductor fabrication plants, the other is more plants. More plants are being build and in different locations to spread the risk around and I doubt the current plants are giving up on production capacity if they have a choice.

If you're starting from rest and falling towards a planet, then you will accelerate faster until you hit. Remember that gravity gets lower the further away you are and eventually you will be far enough away that the planet's pull on you isn't relevant anymore - escape velocity is how fast you would accelerate to if you started at the point where you are only just falling towards the planet (simplifying a lot but close enough)

Think of it as punishing you for not understanding your own budget properly - You set the budget, or at least contributed to setting it. If you asked for money you didn't need then there's a good chance that someone else missed out on funding for something because you said you needed the money. If it turns out that you were wrong, especially if you are regularly wrong then they'll start to think you're padding your budget estimates and cut them back on the assumption that you'll make do with a bit less since you usually don't spend it anyway

It's basically saying that you're differentiating (finding the rate of change) of Y compared to X. For example, if you're driving a car and you know how far you have traveled over time then you can call distance Y and time X then differentiate Distance over Time to get your speed at any point in time. You can differentiate this again to get your Acceleration. The important part is that this isn't just your average speed, it's the formula for calculating your speed at any time over your journey

The Y or X are just the standard names for the variables - you can call them anything you like. In the distance over time example I used, you can call distance D and time T and velocity V then you get V = dD/dT

You could then call acceleration A and get A = dV/dT

The whole idea of calculus is to look at rates of change which is useful for a wide range of applications

44 (metric) ton max isn’t that unusual. NZ has a 44 ton max for regular vehicles with a fairly common special class that goes over 50.

If you want to put large hole through a structural member like a stud then you should be strengthening it around the hole. Personally, I'd do that even it wasn't a load bearing wall though obviously if it is, then it becomes a lot more critical.

The easiest way to deal with it would be to fit a stiffener plate like this to the stud before drilling the hole - Obviously you'll have to find a local equivalent and will also have to remove the drywall to get access but it's probably the best bet.

Personally, I'd be looking at running the pipe down through the wall and out through the floor inside the wall then doing the extra run underneath the wall. The bottom plate of the wall is less structurally important than the studs so it's a better solution if you have access underneath and assuming there isn't a floor joist directly under where you want to run the pipe

If you could get enough electricity storage on ship to heat steam to power the engines then why not just use the electricity to run the ship directly? It will be far more efficient that way both because you're not transferring energy from one form to another and back and you don't need to carry all the weight of the water, turbines, generators etc

>I don't think there is any actual architectural reason, just aesthetics and design

I think you mean functional reason - aesthetics and design is what architecture is all about.

Condensation seems unlikely to be a significant issue. The only major issue I can see is if rain gets in the top of the chimney and you get a whole lot of water in there. Whether or not this is possible very much depends on what the top looks like
Is it safe for you to access the top of the chimney and put a cap over it or otherwise block it from the outside?