Yea Fungi mating types aren’t so much sexes as we understand them and more decoder rings.

It’d be like if we had 4 sex chromosomes instead of two, and multiple letters instead of binary.

XAYZ sex vs LBXK sex, and you can only mate with someone whose every chromosome is different.

That, in very broad strokes, is the method behind some fungi reproduction. Others are pretty analogous to human sexes. It’s a very wide range of strategies with fungi.

Do a general search for sex-determination systems. There are all sorts of patterns that can arise from other systems that aren’t XY.

In particular ZO/ZZ sex determination where the female only has one sex chromosome and the male has two.

It only occurs in some species of moth though.

The answer will depend on how far back you want to go.

Way back with Arisistotle it was basically thought that the “earth” element pulled things towards the center of the universe.

From there many individuals separately began to describe this attractive force that pulled stuff to the earth, and even began to calculate/quantify it.

So it’s not really true that Newton came up with the idea of a “gravitational force” in the sense of some sort of law of nature that made apples fall from trees.

What Newton did was develop a law of universal gravitation that could actually be applied to everything. At least everything up until we started seeing relativistic effects.

His mathematical equations/proofs showed that the same force that made apples fall to the earth was what made the planets move, and that the force was at least correlated with mass. Prior to Newton the two were not unified, and many thought they were separate phenomena.

Look into void fractions or porosity. There are a number of methods depending on the material and what you’re goal is.

They revolve around different techniques to measure the volume of the pores/void spaces. Which then allows you to subtract it from the overall volume of the material when calculating density.